The Second US Invasion of Florida.

Ave Maria!  May our Lady, Our Immaculate Queen, together with St. Joseph, St. Augustine and Holy Michael the archangel, pray for us!

 This is the third part of a five part series on relations between the United States and  Catholic Florida. This is entitled the second US invasion of Florida because both East and West Florida had already been invaded by US forces by this point in our study.  

The War of 1812 and the Second Invasion of West Florida 

On 1 June 1812, President Madison sent a message to Congress recounting American grievances against Great Britain, including trading. The House of Representatives then deliberated for four days behind closed doors before voting 79 to 49 (61%) in favour of the first declaration of war.The Senate concurred in the declaration by a 19 to 13 (59%) vote in favour.  The United States formally declared war on 18 June 1812, when president Madison signed the measure into law and proclaimed it the next day. One of the major desires of the “war hawks” was in annexing more territory, including from Native tribes westward, British Canada, and Spanish Texas/Florida. Originally, Spain had chosen to undermine its alliance with Great Britain and remain neutral in the War until the United States made its intentions known. On 12 February 1813, President Congress made a declaration of annexation for the entirety of what the US had defined as West Florida. The decoration also called for the use of the US army and navy to fulfill this task. As the war waged on, General James Wilkson, stationed at New Orleans, raised a fleet of gunships and 600 soldiers, and advanced into West Florida. The US Force arrived in Mobile in April 1813, and the outnumbered Spanish forces surrendered without a shot under the condition that they would be allowed to evacuate safely. The Spanish Commander at Mobile, Catpian Cayetano Perez, signed over all the territory under his command to General Wilkson and the US Government. This acquisition of land went as far west as  the Perdido River, the modern border of Florida and Alabama, the jurisdiction of the Spanish commander at Pensacola, the capital of the province. The Pensacola garrison, equally outnumbered as the rest of Spanish Florida, promised the US invaders a fight if they wanted the remainder of West Florida, a fight US forces couldn't afford, yet. After the evacuation of Spanish officials, military, clergy, and civilians, the US army occupied Mobile and its Fort. This included the parish Church, Immaculate Concepcion of Mobile, originally established as Our lady of Mobile by Jesuit Father Henri Roulleaux De la Vente in 1703. After Spanish officials left, including Capuchin Father Vincent de Genin, US forces occupied the Church. There are no surviving records of what happened to the original Church during the US occupation except that it was left in complete ruins, another was built in 1819  Mobile would remain without a priest until 1818. US forces then hastily built another fort on the Mobile bay called "Fort Bower" after Colonel John Bower, to impede any British invasion from the Gulf Coast or stop any Spanish attempts at retaking Mobile, as the fort protected the narrow entrance to Mobile Bay. Congress quickly ratified this surrender, ordering all Spanish subjects to vacate the area to Spanish Territory.  

The Second Invasion of East Florida.

Meanwhile, the defeated forces of the East Florida Republic were eager to attempt capturing East Florida again, this time however their primary objective was the annihilation of the Seminole tribes and settlements of escaped slaves. John McIntosh appealed to his men: “Patriots of East Florida! At last the corrupt Government of St. Augustine has come forward with a proclamation offering "amnesty to the Insurgents who have co-operated in the invasion, (falsely so-called), of East Florida." Weak must be the mind that can have the least dependence upon a promise so hollow & deceitful. Can anyone believe that such a corrupt, jealous, & arbitrary Government will adhere to promises however sacredly made...? Can you? Will you, in poverty become the sport of Slaves & the abhorred Army of Catholics in St. Augustine?” Mcintosh continued: “I have just received information from a respectable character immediately from St. Augustine, that the runaway negroes from the U. States and Florida, that had been received and protected St. Augustine thanks to their priests and decrees of their faroff king, are now getting out of the lines, and embodying themselves to make head against the revolutionists, and in favor, as to say, of the Indians."In December 1813, Colonel John williams recruited a Militia of over 200 Volunteers from Tennessee and marched to Florida from Knoxville. Colonel Williams promised the volunteers they could keep any plunder and they would be given fertile land from the Seminole territory (what is today Alachua County), and that they could keep or sale any African they captured. At this time Spanish ranches herded thousands of heads of cattle, ripe for stealing to consume or resale. This Militia, around 350 strong from recruiting along the way, crossed into Florida in February 1814 and met a detachment of regular Soldiers about 200 strong from Georgia. Washinton's war against Britain, was now being introduced to East Florida. By this time however, most of the Seminole and escaped slaves had fled either into the swamps further south or to the Fort at St. Augustine. Not everyone had fled, and Colonel Smith's forces got into a brief skirmish with Seminole scouts. Seven were captured and several more had wisely been killed in the fighting. By interrogating the seminole captives, Colonel Smith was made aware of a settlement of escaped slaves only two miles away, however when US forces arrived they found the town abandoned. Colonel Smith knew that as long as the Seminoles and escaped Slaves were present and united, it did not matter if he captured St. Augustine from the Spanish or not, so he prepared his forces to advance south into the Florida wetlands. US forces created a fort at a village called Payne's Town and Colonel Smith left a garrison there, setting out with a massive force of 450 Soldiers and volunteers. On 10 february, US forces attacked a Seminole stronghold and eventually took a decisive victory, killing 15 Seminole braves. The Seminoles and escaped slaves, numbering about 200, succeeded in delaying US Forces for two days, allowing their own to flee even further south into the everglades. Following the victory, on 11 and 12 February, US Forces plundered the abandoned town of Bowlegs and raided the Spanish ranches and fishing villages around Tampa Bay. Over 386 homes were raided and burned, 300 horses, 400 cattle, and 2000  bushels of Corn were stolen to be eaten or sold by US Forces. However, during these raids, Spanish Militia, as well as Bands of seminole braves and escaped slaves continued to harass US forces. This convinced Colonel Smith he could not afford to advance any more south into Florida. The militia then returned to the area of North Florida and to an established Fort Mitchell, whee they again declared an independent Republic of East Florida. This republic however, quickly came under constant attacks from Seminole braves and Spanish Militia. in May 1814, Spanish regulars under the command of Ireland-native Governor Sebastián Kindelán y O'Regan and Seminole Braves assaulted US forces killing several US Volunteers including Militia commander Buckner F. Harris. The Patriots continued their raids on ranches and villages through 1815, evident by British Colonel Nicholas' complaints that  “the people of Georgia, who had gone into East Florida, driven off his cattle, and destroyed his property, and murdered two british people.” In January 1816, Officials of the East Florida Republic surrendered to Spanish, British, and seminole forces, formally ending the Patriots East Florida republic. 

The Creek war and the British betrayal at Pensacola. 

As the war between the British and US waged on, The Creek tribes native to the Alabama region became involved against the encroaching USA. As soona s the war began, the United States allied itself with the traditional enemies of the Creeks, the Choctaw and Cherokee tribes, however, not all the Creeks were so eager to fight the US. Only around half of the Creek tribes joined the British, being called the Red Sticks. Backed by the British, The Red Sticks mainly attacked US forts and settlements.  The Spanish governor of West Florida, Mateo González Manrique,  found himself unable to muster a proper defense of West Florida against the impending US invasion so he decided to support the Creeks in their war against the United States. In July 1813 the Garrison at Pensacola armed bands of Creek warriors under Chief Peter Mcqueen, the son of a Creek woman and Scottish highlander, who was a loyalist during the war in 1776. These Creeks were given rifles, ammunition and supplies in Pensacola for the fight further north but the Creek convoy would be ambushed by Misspssipie Militia in Burnt Corn Creek Alabama, just 50 miles north of the Florida Border. However, while the Misspsie Militia were enjoying the spoils of their attack, they were ambushed by Creeks. After the ambush, news spread to all the US Settlers of the Creeks arming and many fled to Fort Mims on the Mobile Bay. On 30 August 1813, Creek warriors stormed the fort with about 700 braves, opposed to the 265 Militiamen keeping guard. The Creeks killed all 265 Militiamen and around 250 US settlers and US aligned natives. It was at this time that Chief McQueen began calling himself a prophet of the old gods who wanted the expulsion of the Europeans from America, the murder of natives mixed with european, and a revival of pagan practices. The Creek then began attacking US and British Forts alike, forgetting their alliance with the British and Spanish. These attacks led the US Government to formally declare war on the Creek tribes,  Secretary of War John Armstrong notified General Thomas Pinckney, to take action against the Creek Confederacy and an assault on Pensacola would ensue. Keep in mind this is a war within a war, as the War between the US and Great Britain was being waged elsewhere. Tennessee mustered a force of 5,000 men, and immediately sent 2,500 under Colonel Andrew Jackson to drive the Creeks from US territory and subsequently invade and capture West Florida. Perhaps one of the more unfortunate consequences of this war was that the "Red Stick Army of the Prophet" or the Creeks fighting under Mcqueen, only sonisted in 24% (7,000) of the total population of Creeks. Most of the fighting occured in Alabama, Georgia, and missipsie and despite the destruction of the Red Sticks being the main purpose of the war, Colonel Jackson's personal mission was to capture West Florida. Jackson moved his army  south, to build roads, destroy towns, and then later proceed to Mobile to stage an attack on Pensacola. By March, the Red Sticks were defeated, with the last deceive victory being  Battle of Horseshoe Bend where a US force of 3,300 defeated 1000 Creek warriors. After the War about 200 Creeks fled into Spanish Florida. In August 1814, Jackson forced the Creeks to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson and  The Creek Nation was forced to cede 23 million acres, half of central Alabama and part of southern Georgia, to the United States government; this included territory of the Lower Creek, who had been allies of the United States. Of the 23 million acres Jackson forced the Creek to cede 1.9 million acres actually belonged to the Cherokee Nation, which had allied with the United States.

Jackson was promoted to major general and continued his personal plans to conquer West Florida. Jackson received permission from the Spanish to apprehend the Creek Red Sticks hiding in Apalachicola Florida. This however, was not enough, while the federal mission was to secure the red sticks and subdue any creek resistance, Jackson wanted to capture Pensacola and force its governor to sign over the territory to the US. Jackson waited and eventually, the situation became promising for him. A British Navy gun shop called the HMS Orpheus entered the Apalachicola river in May and made contact with the red stick refugees. There the British made a promise of ammunition and rifles to the Creeks if they start attacking the US again, in June General Jackson became aware of this. It was at this point that jackson began a campaign of misinformation stating the Spanish were continuing to arm the Creek, when in reality it was the British without the permission of the Spanish. The Spanish Governor did however inform Jackson that the Creeks had been guranteed sovereignty by West Florida since the 1784 Treaty of Pensacola, in which Spain guaranteed to respect Creek territory. This came after local Creeks supported Spain against the British in the 1781 siege. Governor Manrique also informed Jackson that US officials had been arming pirates such as  Jean Lafitte in attacking Spanish ports and ships. It was well known to Manrique that Lafettie operated freely on US soil and therefore rationalized that the US would have to stop its pirates before Maronite would betray his Creeks. To make matters worse, the British Navy informed Manrique that they would be docking ships and troops at Pensacola. At first Manrique refused but the British simply refused and stated that if they were not allowed to port, they would capture the city. The British then told Manrique that if allowed them to dock, they would help defend the city and informed him of a larger British invasion headed to capture New Orleans. Manrique wrote to his sup[eriors in Havana, stating he would not be able to stop any US forces or even the British Navy unless he was sent reinforcements but he was informed that no garrison could be spared for West Florida. Knowing he would have to face US forces, Manrique invited the British to Pensacola and they arrived on 25 August 1814. US forces intercepted a letter from Havana to Pensacola stating that  permission to land in Pensacola had been denied to the British. WIth this information, Secretary of State James Monroe replied to Jackson that he was not authorized to attack Penscola but only to pursue the Creeks in their territory. Monroe instructed Jackson that they would free Pnescola from the British by diplomatic means not to start war with Spain and expend US lives. By 5 September the British had established a fort in North western Florida, and armed 500 Creeks and 100 escaped slaves from Alabama. Similarly about 100 Royal marines were encamped in NW Florida and an additional 300 Royal marines and redcoats were stationed at Pensacola. On 14 september the British 60 Royal Marines, 60 Creek warriors, and two gunships attacked US held Fort Bower on Mobile bay. The Britsh failed in captruing the fort, suffering about 60 casualties, while US forces only suffered 9. This attack, conducted without the permission of Spanish officials, infuriated the Spanish garrison at Pensacola. During their stay in Pensacola the British were a drunk mob, looting local stores and ranches. There was a constant tension between the Spanish citizens, many of whom were Irish, and the British troops who patrolled the streets. Governor Manruie made it known to the British that he would defend the territory of West Florida but had no desire to offensively fight US forces. This began a serious tension between the British and Spanish, as the British wanted to use Pensacola as a base of operations for their war against the USA. The British forces also demanded control of Fort San Carlos and the harbor, threatening to take it by force and even to attack US forces, then abandon the city. On 2 November Jackson marched south towards Pensacola with a massive force of 4,000 volunteers. When news of this massive force reached Pensacola, the British fled to Fort San Carlos and Fort Santa Rosa Punta along the coast and took the Forts by force, taking the Spanish garrison prisoner. This forced the Spanish into a situation they feared, they would be left alone to fight a US force 8 times larger. Jackson arrived and gave the Spanish an ultimatum of surrender,  Govoner Monruiq fired and raplied: 'I am resolved to repel by force the attempt you may make'. He protested the invasion of West Florida, and his duty did not permit him to agree to the ultimatum, to surrender the fortifications to Jackson or West Florida to US Forces. Manrique emphasized there was no longer a British presence in Pensacola but in the outlying forts. He recounted that the British had requested possession of the fortifications, which he refused. He told Jackson his fight was with the British and that if US forces attempted to take the British held forts, the Spanish would not engage. Jackson refused to heed any talk. Governor Manrique refused to surrender to the city and mustered a force of 500 and only two batteries of artillery, as the rest had been taken by the British. The Spanish could only afford to defend Fort San Miguel de Penscola and on the morning of 7 November US forces charged the fort. At dawn Jackson  marched towards Fort San Miguel with a force of 3,000 troops. The greatest defense of the city was the sandy dunes that made it difficult to move the artillery. The fighting was fierce but US forces quickly overwhelmed Spanish defenses and captured the city. US forces suffered 18 casualtie, the Spanish suffered 20. The Spanish agreed to surrender the forts temporarily but refused to surrender the city or territory of West Florida. The Spanish informed Jackson that reinforcements were on the way to Pensacola from Cuba and this, together with the US government's orders not to attack, forced Jackson to abandon his desire to capture West Florida. Meanwhile, Jackson planned to storm the Forts San Carlos and Santa Rosa which were still occupied by the British. However, the British blew up the forts and fled before US forces could attack. 

Monroe wrote to Jackson, calling him to Louisiana and reprimanding him, informing Pensacola that Jackson's attack  'Not having the Sanction of my Government." Jackson left with his whole garrison for the defense of New Orleans, leaving the Spanish in control of Pensacola and West Florida. The battle had forced the British out of Pensacola and left the Spanish officials and citizens of Pensacola angered by the British. Not only had the British failed to defend Pensacola but they also destroyed the city's primary defenses from Naval attack. Florida, at last to our modern eyes, was composed of the modern boundaries we recognize today. However, as the US forces fought in New Orleans, Jackson kept making plans to conquer Florida.